Glossary

An efficiency certification showing a power supply converts at least 90% of mains electricity to usable power at typical loads. Common in mid-range to high-end PCs.

The standard operating frequency of a processor core, measured in gigahertz (GHz). This is the speed at which your CPU runs under normal conditions.

The firmware that starts your computer and manages hardware before the operating system loads. You can adjust settings here, but changes rarely help performance.

The maximum speed at which a GPU or CPU can run when thermally and electrically safe, usually higher than base clock and used for demanding tasks.

The number of clock cycles it takes for a RAM module to access and return data after receiving a request. Lower CAS latency means faster response times.

A smaller processor chip designed to be combined with others to create a complete CPU or GPU. Used to improve performance and reduce manufacturing costs.

A group of integrated circuits that manages communication between a computer's CPU, memory, and peripherals. It acts as the central hub for data flow.

Processing units in Nvidia graphics cards that handle parallel calculations. More cores generally mean faster performance for compatible tasks.

DDR4 is a type of RAM that transfers data at faster speeds than its predecessor DDR3, using less power. It's the standard memory type in most computers built between 2014 and 2022.

DDR5 is the latest generation of RAM that offers faster data transfer speeds and greater power efficiency than DDR4, found in modern computers and laptops.

A discrete graphics processor installed as a separate component, rather than built into the CPU. Handles visual rendering and video tasks independently.

A DIMM is a stick of RAM that plugs into a slot on your motherboard. It's the standard way computers add memory.

Nvidia's technology that uses AI to upscale lower-resolution images to higher resolutions while maintaining visual quality and boosting frame rates in games.

Memory that detects and corrects single-bit errors automatically. Used in servers and workstations where data accuracy is critical.

A computing standard that allows graphics cards to communicate with a motherboard using a high-speed PCI Express interface.

The physical size and shape of a device or component. Determines compatibility with cases, slots, and other equipment.

FSR is AMD's upscaling technology that renders games at lower resolution, then uses AI to enlarge the image for sharper visuals and better frame rates.

Intel technology that lets a single processor core handle two threads of work at the same time, boosting performance on multi-threaded tasks.

An integrated graphics processor built into a computer's main processor. It handles graphics without needing a separate graphics card.

Instructions per clock: a measure of how many computing tasks a processor completes in each clock cycle. Higher IPC means better performance at the same speed.

The fastest memory built into a CPU that stores recently used data. Larger L1 cache improves performance for demanding tasks.

A small, fast block of memory on a processor that stores recently used data. Larger L2 cache typically improves performance without much cost.

A large, fast memory store built into your processor that holds frequently used data, reducing the time needed to fetch information from slower main memory.

LGA 1700 is Intel's CPU socket for 12th-gen (Alder Lake) and 13th-gen (Raptor Lake) processors. It replaced the older LGA 1200 standard.

A compact slot on a motherboard that connects solid-state drives and wireless modules directly without cables. The fastest storage option in modern PCs.

A motherboard size standard smaller than standard ATX, measuring 244 × 244 mm. Fits in compact cases whilst supporting most desktop features.

A small motherboard form factor measuring 170 × 170 mm, used in compact PC builds and small office computers.

A power supply with detachable cables that connect only to the components you need, reducing clutter inside your PC case.

NVMe is a fast storage interface that connects solid-state drives directly to your computer's motherboard, delivering much quicker data speeds than older SATA drives.

PCIe is the standard internal connection used to attach graphics cards, storage drives, and other expansion cards to a computer's motherboard.

PCIe lanes are the parallel data pathways that connect components like graphics cards and storage drives to your motherboard. More lanes mean faster data transfer.

A power supply unit converts mains electricity into the correct voltage and current for your computer components.

A graphics technique that simulates real light behaviour to create photorealistic images by calculating how light rays bounce around a scene.

SATA is the standard cable and connector used to link hard drives and SSDs to a computer motherboard. It's been the industry standard for nearly two decades.

A manufacturing method that places electronic components directly onto circuit boards using automated machines, enabling smaller and denser device designs.

A small memory module used in laptops and compact devices. SO-DIMM is half the size of a standard desktop RAM stick.

The CPU socket used by AMD's Ryzen 7000 and newer processors. It replaced the older AM4 standard and uses a different pin layout.

Individual cores within a GPU that perform parallel calculations, enabling fast graphics rendering and data processing.

Thermal Design Power: the maximum heat output, measured in watts, that a processor is designed to produce under typical operation.

A high-speed connection standard that combines data transfer, video output, and power delivery in one cable. Thunderbolt 4 reaches up to 40 Gbps and works with USB-C connectors.

A security chip that stores encryption keys and authentication data separately from your main processor. Used to protect passwords, files, and Windows login.

UEFI is the modern firmware that starts your computer and loads the operating system. It replaces the older BIOS standard.

The latest USB standard offering speeds up to 20 Gbps for data transfer. It's faster than USB 3.1 and backwards compatible with older USB devices.

USB-C is a modern reversible connector standard used for charging and data transfer on phones, laptops, and tablets. It's smaller and faster than older USB types.

Video RAM (VRAM) is memory built into your graphics card that stores image data and textures for fast display. More VRAM lets you handle larger, more detailed scenes.

VRM (Voltage Regulator Module) converts your power supply's voltage to precise levels needed by your processor or graphics card. It sits between the PSU and chip on the motherboard.

Intel's upscaling technology that uses AI to enlarge lower-resolution game images to higher resolutions with minimal quality loss.

XMP is Intel's technology that automatically applies optimised memory settings to boost RAM performance beyond standard speeds.

A display resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels, the standard for Full HD video and a common screen size for laptops, monitors, and TVs.

A display resolution of 2560 × 1440 pixels, offering sharper images than 1080p and smoother gaming than 4K on mid-range hardware.

A display resolution of 3840 × 2160 pixels, four times sharper than standard HD. Common in modern TVs, monitors, and cameras.

A display resolution of 7680 × 4320 pixels, four times sharper than 4K. Most consumer content doesn't yet exist in 8K.

A colour space that includes a wider range of green and red hues than sRGB, used mainly by photographers and designers for professional work.

The proportional relationship between a screen's width and height, expressed as two numbers (e.g. 16:9). It determines the shape of the image you see.

The range of colours a display can show. A wider gamut means more vibrant and accurate colours, especially important for photo and video work.

A monitor with a curved screen that wraps slightly towards the viewer, designed to reduce eye strain and improve immersion during gaming or viewing.

A colour space standard used in digital cinema that reproduces a wider range of colours than standard sRGB, often found in high-end monitors and TVs.

A measurement of how accurately a display shows colour compared to a reference standard. Lower numbers mean more accurate colours.

A high-dynamic-range video format that delivers brighter highlights, darker shadows, and a wider colour range than standard video. Requires compatible content and a capable display.

AMD's technology that synchronises a monitor's refresh rate with a graphics card's output to reduce screen tearing during gaming.

Nvidia's technology that synchronises a monitor's refresh rate with a graphics card's frame output to reduce screen tearing and stuttering.

High Dynamic Range technology that displays a wider range of brightness and colour on compatible screens, making images look more realistic and detailed.

HDR10 is a standard for displaying brighter, more detailed images with a wider colour range. It's the most common HDR format in TVs and streaming services.

A type of LCD screen that offers wide viewing angles and accurate colour reproduction, commonly used in monitors and laptops.

A display backlight technology using thousands of tiny LEDs to control brightness across different screen zones, delivering deeper blacks and better contrast than standard LED panels.

A unit of brightness measurement for screens. One nit equals one candela per square metre of light output.

A display technology using organic light-emitting diodes that produce their own light, offering perfect blacks and vibrant colours without a backlight.

The number of pixels packed into one inch of a screen, measured in pixels per inch (PPI). Higher density means sharper text and images.

Pixels per inch: a measure of screen sharpness based on how many pixels fit into each inch of display. Higher PPI means sharper text and images.

The number of times per second a display updates its image, measured in hertz (Hz). Higher refresh rates produce smoother motion.

The time a display pixel takes to change colour, measured in milliseconds. Lower response times reduce motion blur in fast-moving images.

sRGB is a standard colour space that defines how colours appear on screens. It ensures consistent colour reproduction across devices.

A fast but narrow-viewing display panel type that prioritises response time. Common in budget and gaming monitors.

A monitor with an aspect ratio wider than the standard 16:9, typically 21:9 or 32:9, giving a panoramic view across a single screen.

A display technology that offers better contrast and colour reproduction than TN panels, though with slower response times. Common in monitors and TVs.

Variable Refresh Rate: a display technology that syncs the screen's refresh rate to your GPU's output, eliminating screen tearing and stuttering during gameplay.

Ultra-fast memory built into a storage device that temporarily holds frequently accessed data, speeding up read and write operations.

A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a traditional mechanical storage device that uses spinning platters and read/write heads to store and retrieve data.

HMB (Host Memory Buffer) allows an SSD to use your computer's RAM as temporary cache, improving performance without adding dedicated memory to the drive.

Input/Output Operations Per Second: a measure of how many read and write operations a storage device can perform each second.

A type of flash memory that stores multiple bits per cell, offering higher capacity than SLC but slower speeds and shorter lifespan.

A networked storage device that connects to your home or office network, allowing multiple devices to access and backup files from one central location.

QLC NAND stores four bits of data per cell, offering high capacity at low cost but slower performance than faster NAND types.

A data storage method that splits files across multiple drives to boost speed. Offers no backup protection if a drive fails.

A data storage method that writes identical copies of your files to two drives simultaneously, protecting against single drive failure.

The speed at which a storage device retrieves data from random locations, measured in operations per second (IOPS) or megabytes per second (MB/s).

The speed at which a storage device reads data from consecutive locations. Measured in MB/s, it reflects real-world performance for large files.

The speed at which a storage device writes data in a continuous stream. Measured in megabytes per second (MB/s) or gigabytes per second (GB/s).

A small, ultra-fast memory buffer on a solid-state drive that temporarily stores data before writing it to the main storage cells, improving performance.

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a storage device with no moving parts that reads and writes data using flash memory, making it much faster and more durable than traditional hard drives.

TBW measures the total amount of data a solid-state drive can write before it fails. Higher TBW ratings indicate longer device lifespan.

A type of flash memory that stores three bits per cell, balancing cost and performance. Common in affordable solid-state drives and USB sticks.

A network standard that transfers data at 2.5 gigabits per second, faster than standard gigabit Ethernet but cheaper than 10GbE.

The maximum amount of data that can travel through a network connection in a given time, usually measured in megabits per second (Mbps).

A wireless technology that focuses the signal from a router or access point in the direction of connected devices, rather than broadcasting equally in all directions.

A CDN (Content Delivery Network) is a system of distributed servers worldwide that stores copies of your website and delivers them from locations closest to each user, reducing load times and server strain.

A network analysis technique that examines the full contents of data packets, including headers and payload, to identify, categorise, and sometimes block traffic based on its content rather than just source and destination.

A network protocol that automatically assigns IP addresses to devices so you don't have to set them manually. Most home routers use DHCP.

DNS (Domain Name System) translates website addresses like google.com into numerical IP addresses that computers use to connect to servers.

A temporary storage system that saves website address lookups (IP addresses) to speed up future connections without repeatedly querying distant DNS servers.

A security protocol that encrypts your DNS requests so your internet service provider and others cannot see which websites you visit.

A server that translates human-readable domain names (like example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to locate websites and services on the internet.

DNS-over-TLS (DoT) encrypts DNS queries using TLS encryption, preventing your ISP and network eavesdroppers from seeing which websites you visit.

A wired networking standard that connects devices using physical cables to share data and internet. Faster and more reliable than WiFi for stationary equipment.

A network device or software that connects two different networks using different protocols or architectures, translating data between them so devices can communicate across incompatible systems.

Geo-blocking restricts access to online content based on a user's physical location, determined via IP address or GPS data. Websites and services use it to enforce licensing agreements, comply with laws, or manage regional availability.

A technical control that limits access to online content based on the user's geographical location, typically enforced via IP address detection.

A data transfer speed of one billion bits per second, commonly used to measure broadband internet and network connection quality.

A protocol that establishes secure encrypted tunnels between devices, commonly used in VPNs and mobile networks to protect data in transit.

The fourth version of the Internet Protocol, the system that assigns unique numerical addresses to devices on networks. Still the most widely used addressing standard today.

IPv6 is the newest internet protocol that assigns unique addresses to connected devices, replacing the older IPv4 standard with vastly more available addresses.

Variation in the delay of data packets travelling across a network. High jitter causes stuttering in video calls and online games.

A button or feature that instantly cuts your internet connection if your VPN drops, protecting your real IP address and data from exposure.

The delay between sending data and receiving a response, measured in milliseconds. Lower latency means faster, more responsive connections.

A MAC address is a unique identifier assigned to every network device on a local network, used for communication between devices connected to the same physical network segment.

A wireless network where multiple devices (nodes) relay data to each other, extending coverage across larger areas than a single router.

A network layout where multiple devices (nodes) connect directly to each other rather than through a central hub, allowing data to hop between nodes to reach its destination.

Multiple input, multiple output technology that uses several antennas to send and receive data simultaneously, boosting wireless speed and reliability.

A wireless technology that lets a router talk to multiple devices simultaneously instead of one at a time, improving network efficiency.

NAT translates your device's private IP address into a public one when communicating with the internet, allowing multiple devices to share a single connection safely.

The primary network connection that carries aggregated traffic from multiple access points or base stations back to the main network or internet. It forms the backbone link that handles bulk data flow.

A wireless technology that divides a channel into smaller sub-channels to send data to multiple devices at once, improving network efficiency.

An open-source software tool that encrypts your internet connection and masks your location by routing traffic through a remote server.

The failure of data packets to reach their destination during transmission over a network, usually expressed as a percentage.

A network diagnostic tool that measures the time it takes for data to travel between your device and another computer on the internet. Lower ping means faster response times.

A network setting that redirects incoming internet traffic from your router to a specific device or application on your home network.

Quality of Service (QoS) is a network feature that prioritises certain types of traffic, ensuring critical data gets faster delivery than less important content.

Speedtest is a free online tool that measures your internet connection's download speed, upload speed, and ping latency by transferring data to and from servers near your location.

A VPN feature that lets you route some traffic through the VPN and other traffic directly through your ISP. Useful for speed or accessing local services.

Temporary storage that holds incoming video or audio data before playback, allowing the player to maintain smooth playback even when download speed varies.

A subdivision of an IP network that groups devices together logically. Subnets allow networks to be divided into smaller, manageable sections using subnet masks.

The practice of deliberately slowing down your internet connection speed by your ISP, usually when you exceed monthly data limits or during peak hours.

The amount of data a network or device can transfer in a given time, usually measured in megabits per second (Mbps). Higher throughput means faster data speeds.

A networking diagnostic tool that maps the path data packets take from your device to a destination server, showing each intermediary hop and identifying where connection delays occur.

A Virtual Private Network encrypts your internet traffic and masks your location, making your online activity private and harder to track.

The latest Wi-Fi standard (802.11ax) that delivers faster speeds, better performance in crowded networks, and lower power consumption than Wi-Fi 5.

Wi-Fi 6E is the latest Wi-Fi standard that adds a new 6 GHz frequency band, offering faster speeds and less network congestion than Wi-Fi 6.

Wi-Fi 7 is the latest wireless standard, offering faster speeds and lower latency than Wi-Fi 6. It uses the 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz bands for better performance.

A modern VPN protocol designed for speed and simplicity, using stronger encryption with fewer lines of code than older alternatives.

Technology that uses speakers to produce sound waves that cancel out background noise, making audio clearer and listening more peaceful.

aptX is a Qualcomm audio codec that compresses wireless music to play over Bluetooth with better quality than older standards.

The amount of data used to encode audio per second, measured in kilobits per second (kbps). Higher bitrates generally mean better sound quality.

Software or hardware that compresses and decompresses audio or video files. Codecs reduce file size whilst preserving quality for storage and playback.

A digital-to-analogue converter transforms digital audio signals into analogue sound that your speakers or headphones can play.

An immersive audio format that adds height channels to surround sound, creating a three-dimensional listening experience with sounds moving above and around you.

DTS:X is an immersive audio format that creates three-dimensional sound using height channels and object-based mixing, allowing sound to move freely around and above listeners.

The range of audio frequencies a speaker or headphone can reproduce, measured in Hertz. Wider range means it can play deeper bass and higher treble.

Audio files or playback that captures frequencies beyond standard CD quality, typically 24-bit/96 kHz or higher, for greater detail and clarity.

The opposition an audio component offers to an electrical signal, measured in ohms. It affects how speakers and headphones work with amplifiers.

LDAC is Sony's audio codec that transmits high-quality music over Bluetooth at up to 990 kbps, roughly three times faster than standard Bluetooth audio.

Audio compression that preserves every bit of the original sound, so playback is bit-for-bit identical to the source. Quality is perfect, but file sizes are larger than lossy formats.

The lowest frame rate achieved in the bottom 1% of frames during a gaming session, showing worst-case stuttering moments.

Frames per second: the number of individual images a game displays each second. Higher FPS means smoother motion.

The consistency and timing between consecutive frames rendered by your GPU, measured in milliseconds. Uneven frame pacing causes stuttering even when average frame rates appear high.

The time in milliseconds between one frame of a game being drawn and the next. Lower frametimes mean smoother gameplay.

The delay between pressing a button and seeing the result on screen. Lower input lag makes games feel more responsive.

The fixed pixel grid of a display, set by the manufacturer. All images look sharpest when the source matches this resolution exactly.

A visual glitch where horizontal lines appear across the screen during gaming, caused by a mismatch between your graphics card's refresh rate and your monitor's refresh rate.

When a game's frame rate drops or becomes inconsistent, causing the image to jump or freeze momentarily rather than play smoothly.

A visual glitch where the screen displays parts of two different frames at once, creating a horizontal line across the image during fast motion.

A technique that renders a game at a lower resolution, then enlarges the image to fit your screen, often using AI to improve quality and preserve performance.

V-Sync synchronises your graphics card's frame rate to your monitor's refresh rate, reducing screen tearing during gameplay.

A lightweight, portable package that bundles an application with everything it needs to run, isolated from your system.

Software that lets your operating system communicate with hardware like printers, graphics cards, or displays. Without drivers, your devices won't work properly.

A security method where only the sender and recipient can read messages. No one else, including the service provider, can access the content.

Low-level software built into hardware that controls how a device works. Firmware updates fix bugs and add features without replacing the device.

Software that creates and manages virtual machines on a physical computer, allowing multiple operating systems to run simultaneously.

The core software component that manages communication between applications and your computer's hardware. It controls memory, processor time, and device access.

Malicious software designed to harm, steal from, or control your device without your permission. Includes viruses, spyware, and ransomware.

A cyber scam where criminals impersonate trusted organisations to trick you into revealing passwords, payment details, or other sensitive information.

Malicious software that encrypts your files and demands payment to unlock them. A serious threat to both personal devices and businesses.

A security technique that runs untrusted software in an isolated environment, preventing it from accessing your files, settings, or other programmes.

A security method that requires two separate forms of ID to access your account, such as your password plus a code from your phone.

A technology that lets one physical computer run multiple separate operating systems or applications at the same time, each in its own isolated environment.

A software vulnerability unknown to the developer, actively exploited by attackers before a fix is available.

Advanced Audio Codec (AAC) is a compressed audio format used over Bluetooth to deliver higher quality sound than the older SBC codec, commonly found in modern wireless headphones and speakers.

aptX Adaptive is a Bluetooth audio codec that adjusts compression and bitrate in real-time based on connection quality, delivering hi-fi sound over wireless connections with minimal latency.

A display feature that reduces input lag by prioritising responsiveness over picture quality, commonly found in gaming monitors and TVs.

The latest Bluetooth wireless standard (released 2021) offering improved range, faster data transfer, and better power efficiency than previous versions, with multi-path transmission to reduce interference.

Bluetooth LE Audio is a low-energy wireless standard for transmitting high-quality sound between devices with minimal power drain. It replaces older Bluetooth audio codecs and enables multi-device streaming.

HDMI CEC (Consumer Electronics Control) lets you control multiple connected devices through a single remote, typically your TV. It simplifies managing audio equipment, set-top boxes, and game consoles over the HDMI cable itself.

A mesh WiFi system component made by TP-Link that works with other Deco units to extend wireless coverage across your home without dead zones.

A protocol that compresses video data sent over DisplayPort or HDMI to reduce bandwidth requirements whilst maintaining visual quality, enabling higher resolutions or refresh rates over existing cables.

DisplayPort 2.1 is the latest version of the display connection standard, delivering up to 80 Gbps bandwidth for high-resolution video, audio, and data transmission over a single cable.

eARC (enhanced Audio Return Channel) sends high-quality sound from your TV back to a soundbar or receiver through a single HDMI cable, replacing older audio connections.

The latest HDMI standard supporting up to 48 Gbps bandwidth, enabling 4K video at 120Hz, 8K at 60Hz, and advanced features like variable refresh rate. Widely used in gaming monitors, TVs, and high-end AV equipment.

HDMI 2.1a is a digital video and audio standard supporting up to 48 Gbps bandwidth, enabling 8K resolution at 60Hz or 4K at 120Hz with enhanced colour depth and low-latency gaming features.

LE Audio is a Bluetooth audio technology that delivers better sound quality and power efficiency than standard Bluetooth, using a more efficient codec called LC3 to reduce battery drain on devices.

A wireless network backbone that connects mesh nodes to each other and the internet without requiring wired connections, using a dedicated radio band to avoid congestion on user devices.

A portable wireless device that creates a personal mobile hotspot by connecting to mobile networks and broadcasting Wi-Fi to nearby devices, allowing internet access without fixed broadband.

Power over Ethernet (PoE) delivers electrical power and network data through the same Ethernet cable, eliminating separate power supplies for compatible devices like cameras, access points and switches.

PoE+ (Power over Ethernet Plus) delivers up to 30W of power through standard network cables, enabling mid-power devices like access points and IP cameras without separate power adapers.

A router that operates on four separate wireless frequency bands simultaneously, typically two 2.4 GHz bands and two 5 GHz bands, to reduce congestion and serve more devices without performance drops.

A fixed internet address assigned permanently to a device, unlike dynamic IPs which change periodically. Useful for hosting servers or enabling remote access.

Thunderbolt 5 is Intel's latest high-speed connectivity standard, delivering up to 120 Gbps bandwidth for data transfer, video output, and power delivery through a single USB-C port.

A router that broadcasts three separate wireless signals simultaneously: one 2.4GHz band and two 5GHz bands. This allows more devices to connect without congestion or speed drops.

USB 3.2 Gen 2 is the mid-tier USB 3.2 standard offering 10 Gbps data transfer speeds, commonly used in modern laptops, external drives, and peripherals for faster file transfers than older USB versions.

USB4 is the latest universal serial bus standard that delivers speeds up to 40 Gbps and supports multiple data protocols over a single USB-C connection, enabling high-speed file transfer and video output simultaneously.

A VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) is a way to split a physical network into separate logical networks, allowing devices to communicate as if they're on the same wired connection even when physically distant.

Variable Refresh Rate technology that syncs a display's refresh rate to a graphics card's output, eliminating screen tearing and stuttering during gaming and video playback.

Wi-Fi 6 EasyMesh is a mesh networking standard that uses Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) to create self-healing, multi-node home networks with simple setup and automatic device handoff between nodes.

Unwanted software that displays advertisements on your device, often bundled with free programmes or installed without clear consent. It slows performance and can expose you to malicious ads.

A network of compromised computers (bots) controlled remotely by an attacker to perform malicious tasks without owners' knowledge, often used for spam, theft, or coordinated attacks.

Malicious software that modifies your web browser's settings without permission, typically redirecting searches, injecting ads, or changing your homepage to generate revenue for attackers.

A cyberattack method where an attacker tries thousands or millions of password combinations automatically until gaining access to an account or system.

An attack where criminals steal session cookies from your browser to impersonate you online, gaining access to your accounts without knowing your password.

A cyberattack where hackers use stolen username and password combinations to gain unauthorised access to user accounts, typically by automating login attempts across multiple websites.

A security vulnerability where attackers inject malicious code into websites, allowing them to steal user data, hijack sessions, or redirect visitors to harmful sites.

Unauthorised use of someone else's computing power to mine cryptocurrency, typically without their knowledge or consent. Attackers hijack devices through malware to generate profit.

Unauthorised access to or theft of sensitive data held by an organisation, exposing personal or confidential information to attackers or the public.

A coordinated assault that floods a website or service with traffic from multiple sources to make it unavailable to legitimate users.

A password-cracking method where an attacker systematically tries common words, phrases, and previously leaked passwords against a target account or system.

A digital file that verifies the identity of a website, person, or organisation and enables encrypted communication. Issued by a trusted third party called a Certificate Authority.

A security flaw where your internet service provider or other third parties can see which websites you visit, even when using a VPN. This happens when DNS requests bypass your VPN's encrypted tunnel.

A cyberattack where an attacker redirects internet traffic by forging fake DNS responses, sending users to fraudulent websites instead of legitimate ones.

A drive-by download occurs when malware or unwanted software automatically installs on your device without your knowledge or consent, typically triggered by visiting a compromised or malicious website.

EDR (Endpoint Detection and Response) is security software that monitors individual devices like PCs and laptops for suspicious activity, then automatically isolates or removes threats when detected.

FIDO2 is an open authentication standard that lets you sign into accounts using a physical security key or built-in device authenticator instead of passwords, without relying on a central server.

A physical device that stores cryptographic keys and authenticates your identity without transmitting secrets over the internet. It protects accounts from phishing, malware, and unauthorised access.

HTTPS is the encrypted version of HTTP that protects data sent between your browser and a website using SSL/TLS security protocols, preventing hackers from intercepting passwords, payment details, and personal information.

Identity theft occurs when someone uses your personal information (such as name, address, or financial details) without permission to commit fraud or other crimes.

IP spoofing is a cyberattack technique where someone forges the source IP address in network packets to mask their identity or impersonate another device.

A security flaw where your device reveals its true IPv6 address even when using a VPN or proxy that only masks IPv4 traffic, potentially exposing your location and identity.

Software or hardware that records keyboard inputs, capturing passwords, messages, and search queries. Legitimate uses exist for IT support, but most keyloggers are malicious tools used to steal sensitive data.

A VPN kill switch automatically cuts your internet connection if the VPN tunnel drops, preventing your real IP address or unencrypted data from leaking. Essential security feature for protecting privacy when using untrusted networks.

A cyberattack where someone secretly intercepts and alters communications between two parties, often to steal data or credentials without either party realising.

A security method requiring users to verify their identity through two or more different types of evidence (such as passwords, fingerprints, or codes) before granting access to an account or system.

A network privacy technique that encrypts data in multiple layers and routes it through several volunteer-operated servers to hide the user's identity and location from observers.

A digital credential that replaces passwords by using your device's biometric data or PIN to verify your identity. Passkeys work across websites and apps without needing to remember or type passwords.

A cryptographic process that converts passwords into fixed-length strings of characters, making them unreadable and irreversible. Hashing ensures that even if someone accesses a database, they cannot recover the original passwords.

Authorised simulated cyberattack on systems to identify security vulnerabilities before malicious actors do. Tests defences through real-world attack scenarios.

A fraudulent attempt to trick you into revealing sensitive information, usually through fake emails, texts, or websites that impersonate trusted organisations.

A cryptographic system using two mathematically linked keys: a public key for encrypting data and a private key for decrypting it. The public key can be shared openly without compromising security.

Malicious software that gains administrator-level access to a device, hiding itself and other programmes from detection whilst giving attackers control.

Salting is adding random data to a password before hashing it, making each password's hash unique and resistant to pre-computed attack tables. It prevents multiple accounts with identical passwords from producing identical hashes.

An isolated testing environment where software, files, or code run separately from your main system. Malware or buggy programmes can't escape to harm your real files or operating system.

Session hijacking is when an attacker steals or intercepts your authenticated connection to a website or app, allowing them to impersonate you without knowing your password.

A fraud method where attackers transfer your phone number to a new SIM card they control, gaining access to your accounts and bypassing two-factor authentication codes.

Smishing is a phishing attack carried out via SMS text messages, where scammers impersonate trusted organisations to trick you into revealing personal data or clicking malicious links.

Manipulation techniques that trick people into divulging confidential information or granting unauthorised access, exploiting human psychology rather than technical vulnerabilities.

A targeted cyber attack where criminals impersonate a trusted person or organisation to trick a specific individual into revealing sensitive information or downloading malware.

A VPN feature that lets you route some internet traffic through the VPN tunnel and other traffic directly through your regular connection, rather than sending everything through the VPN.

Malicious software that secretly monitors your device activity, captures passwords, browsing habits, and personal data without your knowledge or consent, then sends it to attackers.

A cyberattack where malicious SQL code is inserted into input fields to manipulate databases and bypass security controls. Attackers exploit poorly validated user inputs to execute unintended database commands.

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is an encryption protocol that secures data transmitted between your browser and a website server, protecting sensitive information like passwords and payment details.

Encryption method where the same key encrypts and decrypts data. Fast and efficient for protecting stored files and messages, but both parties must securely share the key beforehand.

TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a cryptographic protocol that encrypts data travelling between your device and a website or service, protecting it from interception and tampering.

Tor is free software that routes your internet traffic through multiple volunteer-run servers worldwide, masking your IP address and location to provide anonymity online.

Malicious software that disguises itself as legitimate or desirable to trick users into installing it, granting attackers unauthorised access to a device or network.

Vishing is a voice-based phishing attack where fraudsters impersonate trusted organisations to trick people into revealing passwords, payment details, or other sensitive information over the phone.

A security vulnerability where your real IP address becomes visible to websites even when using a VPN, due to how WebRTC (a browser technology for video calls) handles network connections.

A self-replicating malicious programme that spreads across networks and devices without user action, unlike viruses which require an infected file to spread.

A cyberattack that exploits a previously unknown software vulnerability before developers can release a patch, giving attackers a window of unopposed access.

A security flaw in software or hardware that vendors don't yet know about, allowing attackers to exploit it before any patch exists.

Encryption where the service provider cannot access your data even if compelled to hand it over, because they never receive the unencrypted information or decryption keys.

4G LTE is a mobile network standard that delivers faster data speeds than 3G, enabling streaming, downloads, and web browsing at typical rates of 10-100 Mbps depending on signal and network load.

5G is the fifth generation of mobile network technology, offering significantly faster speeds, lower latency, and greater capacity than 4G. It enables downloads up to 1Gbps and supports more connected devices simultaneously.

A 5G network architecture where 5G operates independently without relying on 4G LTE infrastructure. This enables faster speeds, lower latency, and better network efficiency than non-standalone 5G.

A smartphone feature that shows limited information on the screen even when the device is locked or in standby mode, using minimal battery power.

Active-Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diode: a display technology where each pixel produces its own light and can switch on or off independently, enabling perfect blacks and high contrast.

Android Auto is Google's system that mirrors a smartphone's key functions onto a vehicle's dashboard screen, letting drivers access navigation, messaging, and music whilst keeping eyes on the road.

Apple CarPlay is a system that mirrors an iPhone's interface onto a vehicle's infotainment screen, enabling safer access to maps, messaging, music, and calls while driving.

Apple's custom-designed processor chips for Mac and iPad computers, built on ARM architecture instead of Intel. They combine CPU, GPU, and neural engine on a single chip for faster performance and longer battery life.

One complete charge and discharge of a battery, from full to empty and back to full. Battery lifespan is measured in cycles, typically 300-1000 for smartphone batteries.

Software techniques that enhance photos by processing image data during or after capture, allowing phones without large camera hardware to produce results rivalling dedicated cameras.

A mobile phone with two SIM card slots, letting you use two separate phone numbers and networks simultaneously on the same device.

A digital SIM card stored on your phone's chip rather than a removable physical card. Lets you switch networks without changing hardware.

Face ID is Apple's facial recognition system that unlocks iPhones, iPads and Macs by scanning and matching your face using infrared sensors and machine learning.

A technology that delivers power to a device faster than standard charging, typically using higher voltage or current to reduce charging time from hours to minutes.

A biometric scanner that reads the unique ridge patterns on your fingertip to unlock devices or authenticate payments. Found on most modern smartphones and tablets.

IP68 is the highest water and dust resistance rating for consumer devices, meaning complete dust protection and submersion in water up to specified depths for set durations.

A display technology that dynamically adjusts its refresh rate between a minimum and maximum (often 1Hz to 120Hz) based on on-screen content, reducing power consumption without sacrificing responsiveness.

Apple's magnetic alignment and charging system for iPhones and accessories that uses embedded magnets to snap components into correct position and enable wireless power transfer.

Near Field Communication is a wireless technology that lets devices exchange data over very short distances (typically 10cm or less) by simply holding them close together.

A display technology using organic compounds that emit light independently, enabling true blacks, infinite contrast, and thinner screens on smartphones and tablets.

A camera technology that uses moving lens elements or sensors to counteract hand shake and movement, producing sharper photos and steadier video without digital cropping.

A telephoto lens design that uses a prism or mirror to fold light horizontally inside a phone, allowing powerful zoom without bulky camera thickness.

Apple's variable refresh rate display technology that adjusts screen refresh rates up to 120Hz based on content and user interaction, reducing power consumption while maintaining smoothness.

Qi is the global wireless charging standard that lets you power compatible phones and devices by placing them on a charging pad or mat, without needing a cable.

Qi2 is the latest wireless charging standard that uses magnetic alignment to position phones precisely over charging coils, improving efficiency and compatibility across devices.

The number of times per second a phone's screen redraws its image, measured in Hertz (Hz). Higher refresh rates produce smoother motion and reduce flicker.

Snapdragon is a mobile processor series by Qualcomm that powers most Android phones. It handles computing tasks like gaming, apps, and video processing.

A single chip containing all core components of a computer (processor, graphics, memory controllers, modem) in one integrated circuit. Common in smartphones and tablets.

Apple's fingerprint recognition technology that unlocks devices and authenticates payments using your unique fingerprint instead of a passcode.

A charging method that supplies a small, constant electrical current to a battery over an extended period, preventing overcharging and heat damage whilst maintaining full capacity.

USB Power Delivery (PD) is a charging standard that delivers up to 240W through USB-C cables, allowing fast charging for laptops, phones, tablets and other devices from a single charger.

Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR) automatically stabilises electrical voltage output to protect devices from damage caused by power fluctuations, surges, and brownouts.

The difference between a device's current temperature and its maximum safe operating temperature, measured in degrees Celsius. Higher cooling headroom indicates better thermal safety margins.

A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is a safety device that cuts power instantly if it detects electrical leakage to ground, preventing electrocution in wet environments like bathrooms and kitchens.

The amount of electrical power a device consumes when switched on but not actively in use or performing its intended function.

A measure of energy absorption capacity in surge protectors and power strips, indicating how much electrical energy the device can safely dissipate before failing. Higher joule ratings offer greater protection against power spikes.

A Line-Interactive UPS monitors mains voltage and automatically switches between mains power and battery to stabilise unstable supply without draining the battery during minor fluctuations.

A stepped electrical waveform that approximates a sine wave, used in cheaper uninterruptible power supplies and inverters. Less smooth than true sine waves but cheaper to produce.

An uninterruptible power supply that continuously converts incoming mains power through its battery and inverter, providing real-time protection against voltage fluctuations and power loss with zero switchover time.

The maximum amount of electrical power a device can handle for a brief moment, typically during startup. Different from continuous wattage, which is the sustained power it can manage safely.

A power strip adds extra sockets to one outlet but offers no protection against voltage spikes, whilst a surge protector detects dangerous electrical surges and cuts power to prevent device damage.

A graph showing how efficiently a power supply converts mains electricity to usable power across different load levels, measured as a percentage.

An electrical waveform that matches grid power exactly, with smooth, continuous curves rather than stepped approximations. Essential for sensitive electronics to function safely.

A residual current device (RCD) is a safety switch that cuts power instantly if it detects an imbalance in electrical current, protecting against electric shock and fire risks.

A backup power system that detects mains failure and switches to battery power, typically within milliseconds. Cheaper than online UPS but offers less protection against power fluctuations.

An electrical device that protects equipment from voltage spikes by diverting excess current away from connected devices. Most include a power switch and multiple outlets.

TDP (Thermal Design Power) is a manufacturer's estimated peak power consumption, whilst actual draw is the real-world electrical current a device uses under typical or heavy loads.

Automatic reduction of processor speed when a device overheats, designed to prevent hardware damage by lowering power consumption and heat output.

The length of time a UPS (uninterruptible power supply) can deliver power to connected devices after mains electricity fails, typically measured in minutes.

VA (volt-amperes) measures apparent power in an electrical circuit, while watts measures real power actually delivered. For UPS units and power supplies, watts is what matters for your devices, but VA is often used in marketing specifications.

A bundled software package combining antivirus, malware detection, and additional security tools like firewalls or password managers into one application.

Apple File System (APFS) is the modern file system used by Apple devices since 2017, replacing HFS+. It offers better performance, security, and space efficiency for Mac, iPhone, and iPad storage.

A set of rules and protocols that allows different software applications to communicate with each other and request specific functions or data.

An application that runs processes in the background of your device while you use other apps or features. Background apps consume system resources and battery power even when not actively displayed on screen.

A Windows application or service that runs behind the scenes without a visible window, handling tasks like updates, backups, and system maintenance while you use other programmes.

Pre-installed software on a device that users did not choose and often cannot easily remove. Bloatware consumes storage space, memory, and battery life whilst providing little value to most users.

Temporary storage on your device that saves copies of website files (images, scripts, stylesheets) to load pages faster on repeat visits. Your browser manages this automatically without you having to do anything.

A Windows command-line utility that scans hard drives and SSDs for file system errors, bad sectors, and lost files, then repairs them automatically.

Cloud backup stores copies of your files and data on remote servers managed by a third-party provider, accessible from any device with internet access.

A text-based interface for Windows that lets you control your computer by typing commands instead of using a mouse and menus. It runs system tasks, manages files, and troubleshoots problems.

A file format that bundles video, audio, subtitles and metadata into a single file. Common containers include MP4, MKV and AVI, which determine compatibility with devices and players rather than the quality of the video itself.

DCH (Declared Hardware Components) drivers are Windows drivers that declare and manage device capabilities through a modern framework, replacing traditional monolithic drivers with a modular approach.

A software program that enables your operating system to communicate with and control a specific hardware device, translating general commands into device-specific instructions.

DirectX is Microsoft's collection of APIs that allow software to communicate directly with graphics cards and audio hardware, enabling games and multimedia applications to run faster by bypassing Windows overhead.

A containerisation platform that packages applications with their dependencies into isolated, portable units called containers, allowing consistent execution across different computers and servers.

Software that allows your operating system to communicate with your graphics card or display monitor. Without display drivers, your screen cannot render images correctly.

exFAT is a lightweight file system designed for flash storage devices like USB drives and memory cards, offering better compatibility across devices than NTFS whilst supporting larger file sizes than FAT32.

ext4 is a Linux file system that stores and organises data on hard drives and SSDs. It replaced ext3 and supports larger file sizes, faster performance, and better reliability than its predecessor.

The method an operating system uses to organize, store, and retrieve files on a storage device. It determines how data gets written, named, accessed, and protected.

GUID Partition Table: a modern disk partitioning standard that replaces older MBR systems, supporting larger drives and more partitions without workarounds.

A Windows system administration tool that allows IT managers to enforce consistent security settings, software configurations, and user restrictions across multiple computers on a network from a central location.

Microsoft's virtualisation platform that lets you run multiple operating systems simultaneously on a single physical computer. Built into Windows Pro, Enterprise, and Server editions.

Apple's cloud storage and synchronisation service that stores photos, documents, emails, and device backups across your Apple devices and the web.

MBR (Master Boot Record) is a small program stored at the start of a hard drive that tells your computer how to boot and where your partitions are located.

A software defect where a programme fails to release memory that is no longer needed, causing available system memory to gradually decrease until performance degrades or the application crashes.

NTFS (New Technology File System) is a modern file system used by Windows to organise, store, and retrieve files on hard drives and storage devices. It replaced the older FAT32 system.

A Windows driver file used by Nvidia graphics cards to manage GPU memory and hardware communication. Essential for proper video card function, but a common source of system crashes and blue screens.

Microsoft's cloud storage service that syncs files across devices and lets you access documents from anywhere. Included free with Windows and Microsoft 365 subscriptions.

The core software that manages your device's hardware and lets you run applications. It handles tasks like file storage, memory, security, and how programs communicate with your device.

An interrupt that occurs when a programme tries to access memory that isn't currently loaded in RAM, forcing the operating system to fetch it from disk.

A reserved area of your hard drive or SSD that Windows uses to extend RAM when physical memory is full. Acts as overflow storage for inactive data.

A logical division of a storage device or database that acts as a separate unit for file storage, backups, or data management. Each partition functions independently with its own file system.

A command-line shell and scripting language built into Windows that lets you automate tasks and manage system configuration through text commands and scripts.

A running instance of a program in a computer's memory with its own resources, state, and isolated execution space. Each process operates independently from others.

The amount of your computer's random access memory currently in use by running programmes and the operating system. High RAM usage slows performance; low usage means available capacity for multitasking.

A centralised database in Windows that stores configuration settings, user preferences, and system information for the operating system and installed programmes.

Reinstalling audio driver software to fix sound problems by removing corrupted or outdated files and restoring factory settings.

A kit of programming tools, libraries, and documentation that lets developers build applications for a specific platform or service without creating everything from scratch.

A firmware security feature that prevents unauthorised software from running during the boot process by verifying digital signatures on operating system files before they load.

A Windows background application that runs automatically without requiring user login and performs specific tasks like updates, network services, or system monitoring.

A programme that automatically launches when your device boots up, running in the background without user interaction. Startup applications consume system resources and can slow down your computer's startup time.

A reserved area of a storage drive that your computer uses as extra RAM when physical memory runs out. It's slower than real RAM but prevents crashes from memory overload.

A status indicating that data changes exist on a device but haven't yet been transmitted to a cloud service or another connected device. The synchronisation process is queued or in progress.

A Windows system utility that automatically runs programmes or scripts at specified times or when particular conditions occur, without manual intervention.

A text-based interface where you type commands to control your computer directly, bypassing the graphical desktop. Commonly used by developers and tech enthusiasts for system administration and software development.

The smallest unit of execution within a process that a CPU scheduler can manage independently. Multiple threads share the same memory space but run concurrently.

Trusted Platform Module 2.0 is a hardware security chip that stores encryption keys and verifies system integrity, required by Windows 11 and used to protect sensitive data from theft.

A Windows security feature that prompts users before allowing programmes to make system-wide changes, preventing unauthorised modifications to your device.

A software-based computer that runs on top of a physical machine, allowing you to install and use multiple operating systems or applications isolated from each other.

A memory management technique that uses disk storage to extend available RAM, allowing programmes to run larger datasets than physical memory alone permits.

Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) lets you run a Linux environment natively on Windows 10 and 11 without virtualisation, letting developers use Linux tools and command-line utilities directly.